Abstract
The notion of the “biological individual” is crucial to studies of genetics, immunology, evolution, development, anatomy, and physiology. Each of these biological subdisciplines has a specific conception of individuality, which has historically provided conceptual contexts for integrating newly acquired data. During the past decade, nucleic acid analysis, especially genomic sequencing and high-throughput RNA techniques, has challenged each of these disciplinary definitions by finding significant interactions of animals and plants with symbiotic microorganisms that disrupt the boundaries that heretofore had characterized the biological individual. Animals cannot be considered individuals by anatomical or physiological criteria because a diversity of symbionts are both present and functional in completing metabolic pathways and serving other physiological functions. Similarly, these new studies have shown that animal development is incomplete without symbionts. Symbionts also constitute a second mode of genetic inheritance, providing selectable genetic variation for natural selection. The immune system also develops, in part, in dialogue with symbionts and thereby functions as a mechanism for integrating microbes into the animal-cell community. Recognizing the “holobiont”—the multicellular eukaryote plus its colonies of persistent symbionts—as a critically important unit of anatomy, development, physiology, immunology, and evolution opens up new investigative avenues and conceptually challenges the ways in which the biological subdisciplines have heretofore characterized living entities.
Agrawal A. A. 2001. Phenotypic plasticity in the interactions and evolution of species.Science 294:321–326. Crossref, Medline
Altincicek B., Kovacs J. L., Gerardo N. M. 2012. Horizontally transferred fungal carotenoid genes in the two-spotted spider mite Tetranychus urticae. Biology Letters 8:253–257.Crossref
Avise J. C. 1991. Ten unorthodox perspectives on evolution prompted by comparative population genetic findings on mitochondrial DNA. Annual Review of Genetics 25:45–69.Crossref
Bakken J. S., Borody T., Brandt L. J., Brill J. V., Demarco D. C., Franzos M. A., Kelly C., Khoruts A., Louie T., Martinelli L. P., Moore T. A., Russell G., Surawicz C. (Fecal Microbiota Transplantation Workgroup). 2011. Treating Clostridium difficile infection with fecal microbiota transplantation. Clinical Gastroenterology and Hepatology 9:1044–1049.Crossref
Ballal S. A., Gallini C. A., Segata N., Huttenhower C., Garrett W. S. 2011. Host and gut microbiota symbiotic factors: lessons from inflammatory bowel disease and successful symbionts. Cellular Microbiology 13:508–517. Crossref
Bates J. M., Mittge E., Kuhlman J., Baden K. N., Cheesman S. E., Guilemin K. 2006. Distinct signals from the microbiota promote different aspects of zebrafish gut differentiation. Developmental Biology 297:374–386. Crossref
Bäckhed F., Ley R. E., Sonnenbury J. L., Peterson D. A., Gordon J. I. 2005. Host-bacterial mutualism in the human intestine. Science 307:1915–1920. Crossref, Medline
Bravo J. A., Forsythe P., Chew M. V., Escaravage E., Savignac H. M., Dinan T. G., Bienenstock J., Cryan J. F. 2011. Ingestion of Lactobacillus strain regulates emotional behavior and central GABA receptor expression in a mouse via the vagus nerve. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 108:16050–16055.Crossref
Brelsfoard C. L., Dobson S. L. 2009. Wolbachia-based strategies to control insect pests and disease vectors. Asia Pacific Journal of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology 17:55–63.
Buchheit C. L., Rayavarapu R. R., Schafer Z. T. 2012. The regulation of cancer cell death and metabolism by extracellular matrix attachment. Seminars in Cell and Developmental Biology 23:402–411. Crossref
Buchner P. 1965. Endosymbiosis of Animals with Plant Microorganisms. New York: Interscience Publishers.
Burnet F. M., Fenner F. 1949. The Production of Antibodies. Second Edition. Melbourne (Australia): Macmillan and Company.
Cash H. L., Whitman C. V., Behrendt C. L., Hooper L. V. 2006. Symbiotic bacteria direct expression of an intestinal bactericidal lectin. Science 313:1126–1130. Crossref, Medline
Castañeda J., Genzor P., Bortvin A. 2011. piRNAs, transposon silencing, and germline genome integrity. Mutation Research 714:95–104. Crossref
CDC (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention). 2010. Diarrheal diseases in less developed countries.http://www.cdc.gov/healthywater/hygiene/ldc/diarrheal_diseases.html.
Chapman R. W., Stephens J. C., Lansman R. A., Avise J. C. 1982. Models of mitochondrial DNA transmission genetics and evolution in higher eucaryotes. Genetics Research 40:41–57. Crossref
Chow J., Lee S. M., Shen Y., Khosravi A., Mazmanian S. K. 2010. Host bacterial symbiosis in health and disease. Advances in Immunology 107:243–274. Crossref
Chung W.-J., Okamura K., Martin R., Lai E. C. 2008. Endogenous RNA interference provides a somatic defense against Drosophila transposons. Current Biology 18:795–802.Crossref
Clements F. E. 1916. Plant Succession: An Analysis of the Development of Vegetation.Washington (DC): Carnegie Institute of Washington. Crossref
Cordaux R., Batzer M. A. 2009. The impact of retrotransposons on human evolution.Nature Reviews Genetics 10:691–703. Crossref
Costello E. K., Stagaman K., Dethlefsen L., Bohannan B. J. M., Relman D. A. 2012. The application of ecological theory toward an understanding of the human microbiome. Science336:1255–1262. Crossref, Medline
Coulibaly Y. I. et al. 2009. A randomized trial of doxycycline for Mansonella perstansinfection. New England Journal of Medicine 361:1448–1458. Crossref
Cryan J. F., O'Mahony S. M. 2011. The microbiome-gut-brain axis: from bowel to behavior.Neurogastroenterology and Motility 23:187–192. Crossref
Dale C., Moran N. A. 2006. Molecular interactions between bacterial symbionts and their hosts. Cell 126:453–465. Crossref
Dayel M. J., Alegado R. A., Fairclough S. R., Levin T. C., Nichols S. A., McDonald K., King N. 2011. Cell differentiation and morphogenesis in the colony-forming choanoflagellateSalpingoeca rosetta. Developmental Biology 357:73–82. Crossref, Medline
Dawkins R., Margulis L. 8 May 2009. “Homage to Darwin” debate at Oxford University.http://www.voicesfromoxford.com/homagedarwin_part3.html.
Douglas A. E. 1988. Experimental studies on the mycetome symbiosis in the leafhopperEuscelis incisus. Journal of Insect Physiology 34:1043–1053. Crossref
Douglas A. E. 2010. The Symbiotic Habit. Princeton (New Jersey): Princeton University Press.
Duan J., Chung H., Troy E., Kasper D. L. 2010. Microbial colonization drives expansion of IL-1 receptor 1-expressing and IL-17-producing γ/δ T cells. Cell Host and Microbe 7:140–150. Crossref
Dunbar H. E., Wilson A. C. C., Ferguson N. R., Moran N. A. 2007. Aphid thermal tolerance is governed by a point mutation in bacterial symbionts. PLoS Biology 5:e96.
Dunning Hotopp J. C. et al. 2007. Widespread lateral gene transfer from intracellular bacteria to multicellular eukaryotes. Science 317:1753–1756. Crossref, Medline
Eberl G. 2010. A new vision of immunity: homeostasis of the superorganism. Mucosal Immunology 3:450–460. Crossref
Eldakar O. T., Wilson D. S. 2011. Eight criticisms not to make about group selection.Evolution 65:1523–1526. Crossref
Emera D., Casola C., Lynch V. J., Wildman D. E., Agnew D., Wagner G. P. 2012. Convergent evolution of endometrial prolactin expression in primates, mice, and elephants through the independent recruitment of transposable elements. Molecular Biology and Evolution29:239–247. Crossref
Fraune S., Bosch T. C. G. 2010. Why bacteria matter in animal development and evolution.Bioessays 32:571–580. Crossref, Medline
Geddes P., Mitchell P. C. 1911. Morphology. Pages 863–869 in Encyclopedia Britannica, Eleventh Edition. Cambridge (United Kingdom): Cambridge University Press.
Gilbert S. F. 2001. Ecological developmental biology: developmental biology meets the real world. Developmental Biology 233:1–12. Crossref, Medline
Gilbert S. F. 2003. The genome in its ecological context: philosophical perspectives on interspecies epigenesis. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 981:202–218.Crossref
Gilbert S. F. 2011. Symbionts as Genetic Sources of Hereditable Variation. Pages 283–293 inTransformations of Lamarckism: From Subtle Fluids to Molecular Biology, edited by S. B. Gissis and E. Jablonka. Cambridge (Massachusetts): MIT Press.
Gilbert S. F., Epel D. 2009. Ecological Developmental Biology: Integrating Epigenetics, Medicine, and Evolution. Sunderland (Massachusetts): Sinauer Associates.
Gilbert S. F., McDonald E., Boyle N., Buttino N., Gyi L., Mai M., Prakash N., Robinson J. 2010. Symbiosis as a source of selectable epigenetic variation: taking the heat for the big guy. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 365:671–678.Crossref
Greenblum S., Turnbaugh P. J., Borenstein E. 2012. Metagenomic systems biology of the human gut microbiome reveals topological shifts associated with obesity and inflammatory bowel disease. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 109:594–599. Crossref
Haiser H. J., Turnbagh P. J. 2012. Is it time for a metagenomic basis of therapeutics?Science 336:1253–1255. Crossref
Hanahan D., Weinberg R. A. 2011. Hallmarks of cancer: the next generation. Cell 144:646–674. Crossref, Medline
Hanson R. D. E., Trees A. J., Bah G. S., Hetzel U., Martin C., Bain O., Tanya V. N., Makepeace B. L. 2011. A worm's best friend: recruitment of neutrophils by Wolbachiaconfounds eosinophil degranulation against the filarial nematode Onchocerca ochengi. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 278:2293–2302. Crossref
Hartman H., Fedorov A. 2002. The origin of the eukaryotic cell: a genomic investigation.Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 99:1420–1425. Crossref
Hehemann J.-H., Correc G., Barbeyron T., Helbert W., Czjzek M., Michel G. 2010. Transfer of carbohydrate-active enzymes from marine bacteria to Japanese gut microbiota. Nature464:908–912. Crossref
Heijtz R. D., Wang S., Anuar F., Qian Y., Björkholm B., Samuelsson A., Hibberd M. L., Forssberg H., Pettersson S. 2011. Normal gut microbiota modulates brain development and behavior. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America108:3047–3052. Crossref
Herre E. A., Mejía L. C., Kylio D. A., Rojas E., Maynard Z., Butler A., Van Bael S. A. 2007. Ecological implications of anti-pathogen effects of tropical fungal endophytes and mycorrhizae. Ecology 88:550–558. Crossref, Medline
Hill D. A. Siracusa M. C., Abt M. C., Kim B. S., Kobuley D., Kubo M., Kambayashi T., LaRosa D. F., Renner E. D., Orange J. S., Bushman F. D., Artis D. 2012. Commensal bacteria-derived signals regulate basophil hematopoiesis and allergic inflammation. Nature Medicine 18:538–546. Crossref
Hoerauf A., Mand S., Volkmann L., Büttner M., Marfo-Debrekyei Y., Taylor M., Adjei O., Büttner D. W. 2003. Doxycycline in the treatment of human onchocerciasis: kinetics ofWolbachia endobacteria reduction and of inhibition of embryogenesis in femaleOnchocerca worms. Microbes and Infection 5:261–273. Crossref
Hooper L. V., Wong M. H., Thelin A., Hansson L., Falk P. G., Gordon J. I. 2001. Molecular analysis of commensal host-microbial relationships in the intestine. Science 291:881–884.Crossref
Hooper L. V., Littman D. R., Macpherson A. J. 2012. Interactions between the microbiota and the immune system. Science 336:1268–1273. Crossref
Hull D. L. 1980. Individuality and selection. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics11:311–332. Crossref
Huxley T. H. 1852. Upon animal individuality. Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal53:172–177.
Kaneko-Ishino T., Ishino F. 2010. Retrotransposon silencing by DNA methylation contribution to the evolution of placentation and genomic imprinting in mammals.Development, Growth and Differentiation 52:533–543. Crossref
Keller L. 1999. Levels of Selection in Evolution. Princeton (New Jersey): Princeton University Press.
Kerney R., Kim E., Hangarter R. P., Heiss A. A., Bishop C. D., Hall B. K. 2011. Intracellular invasion of green algae in a salamander host. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 108:6497–6502. Crossref, Medline
Klein J. 1982. Immunology: The Science of Self-Nonself Discrimination. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Kunarso G., Chia N.-Y., Jeyakani J., Hwang C., Lu X., Chan Y.-S., Ng H.-H., Bourque G. 2010. Transposable elements have rewired the core regulatory network of human embryonic stem cells. Nature Genetics 42:631–644. Crossref
Lander E. S. et al. (International Human Genome Sequencing Constortium). 2001. Initial sequencing and analysis of the human genome. Nature 409:860–921. Crossref, Medline
Lanning D. K., Rhee K.-J., Knight K. L. 2005. Intestinal bacteria and development of the B-lymphocyte repertoire. Trends in Immunology 26:419–425. Crossref
Lee Y. K., Mazmanian S. K. 2010. Has the microbiota played a critical role in the evolution of the adaptive immune system? Science 330:1768–1773. Crossref
Leigh E. G. 2010. The group selection controversy. Journal of Evolutionary Biology 23:6–19. Crossref, Medline
Leuckart R. 1851. Über den Polymorphismus der Individuen oder die Erscheinungen der Arbeitsteilung in der Natur. Ein Beitrag zur Lehre vom Generationswechsel. Giessen (Germany): Ricker.
Lewontin R. C. 1970. The units of selection. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics1:1–18. Crossref
Ley, R. E., Peterson D. A., Gordon J. I. 2006. Ecological and evolutionary forces shaping microbial diversity in the human intestine. Cell 124:837–848. Crossref, Medline
Ley R. E., Hamady M., Lozupone C., Turnbaugh P. J., Ramey R. R., Bircher J. S., Schlegel M. L., Tucker T. A., Schrenzel M. D., Knight R., Gordon J. I. 2008. Evolution of mammals and their gut microbes. Science 320:1647–1651. Crossref, Medline
Limoges C. 1994. Milne-Edwards, Darwin, Durkheim and Division of Labour: A Case Study in Reciprocal Conceptual Exchanges between the Social and the Natural Sciences. Pages 317–343 in The Natural Sciences and Social Sciences: Some Critical and Historical Perspectives, edited by I. B. Cohen. Dordrecht (The Netherlands): Kluwer Academic Publishers.
Login F. H., Balmand S., Vallier A., Vincent-Monégat C., Vingneron A., Weiss-Gayet M., Rochat D., Heddi A. 2011. Antimicrobial peptides keep insect endosymbionts under control.Science 334:362–365. Crossref, Medline
Lynch V. J., Leclerc R. D., May G., Wagner G. P. 2011. Transposon-mediated rewiring of gene regulatory networks contributed to the evolution of pregnancy in mammals. Nature Genetics 43:1154–1159. Crossref
MacDonald S. J., Thomas G. H., Douglas A. E. 2011. Genetic and metabolic determinants of nutritional phenotype in an insect-bacterial symbiosis. Molecular Ecology 20:2073–2084.Crossref
Margulis L. 1970. Origin of Eukaryotic Cells: Evidence and Research Implications for a Theory of the Origin and Evolution of Microbial, Plant, and Animal Cells on the Precambrian Earth. New Haven (Connecticut): Yale University Press.
Margulis L. 1981. Symbiosis in Cell Evolution: Life and its Environment on the Early Earth. New York: W. H. Freeman.
Margulis L., Fester R. 1991. Symbiosis as a Source of Evolutionary Innovation: Speciation and Morphogenesis. Cambridge (Massachusetts): MIT Press.
Margulis L, Sagan D. 2001. The beast with five genomes. Natural History 110:38–41.
Maynard Smith J., Szathmáry E. 1995. The Major Transitions in Evolution. New York: W. H. Freeman.
Mazmanian S. K., Round J. L., Kasper D. L. 2008. A microbial symbiosis factor prevents intestinal inflammatory disease. Nature 453:620–625. Crossref
McCutcheon J. P., von Dohlen C. D. 2011. An interdependent metabolic patchwork in the nested symbiosis of mealybugs. Current Biology 21:1366–1372. Crossref
McFall-Ngai M. J. 2002. Unseen forces: the influences of bacteria on animal development.Developmental Biology 242:1–14. Crossref, Medline
McFall-Ngai M., Nyholm S. V., Castillo M. G. 2010. The role of the immune system in the initiation and persistence of the Euprymna scolopes-Vibrio fischeri symbiosis. Seminars in Immunology 22:48–53. Crossref
McFall-Ngai M., Heath-Heckman E. A. C., Gillette A. A., Peyer S. M., Harvie E. A. 2012. The secret languages of coevolved symbioses: insights from the Euprymna scolopes-Vibrio fischeri symbiosis. Seminars in Immunology 24:3–8. Crossref, Medline
McLean P. G., Bergonzelli G. E., Collins S. M., Bercik P. 2012. Targeting the microbiota-gut-brain axis to modulate behavior: which bacterial strain will translate best to humans?Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America109:E174.
Medzhitov R., Schneider D. S., Soares M. P. 2012. Disease tolerance as a defense strategy.Science 335:936–941. Crossref, Medline
Michod R. E., Roze D. 1997. Transitions in individuality. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 264:853–857. Crossref
Milne-Edwards H. 1827. Organisation. Pages 332–344 in Dictionnaire Classique d'Histoire Naturelle, edited by J. B. G. M. Bory de Saint-Vincent. Paris: Beaudoin.
Mohamadzadeh M. et al. 2011. Regulation of induced colonic inflammation by Lactobacillus acidophilus deficient in lipoteichoic acid. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 108:4623–4630. Crossref
Moran N. A. 2007. Symbiosis as an adaptive process and source of phenotypic complexity.Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America104:8627–8633. Crossref, Medline
Moreira L. A. et al. 2009. A Wolbachia symbiont in Aedes aegypti limits infection with dengue, chikungunya, and Plasmodium. Cell 139:1268–1278. Crossref, Medline
Morowitz M. J., Denef V. J., Costello E. K., Thomas B. C., Poroyko V., Relman D. A., Banfield J. F. 2011. Strain-resolved community genomic analysis of gut microbial colonization in a premature infant. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 108:1128–1133. Crossref
Muegge B. D., Kuczynski J., Knights D., Clemente J. C., González A., Fontana L., Henrissat B., Knight R., Gordon J. I. 2011. Diet drives convergence in gut microbiome functions across mammalian phylogeny and within humans. Science 332:970–974. Crossref
Mulks M. H., Plaut A. G. 1978. IgA protease production as a characteristic distinguishing pathogenic from harmless Neisseriaceae. New England Journal of Medicine 299:973–976.Crossref
Nash D. R., Als T. D., Maile R., Jones G. R., Boomsma J. J. 2008. A mosaic of chemical coevolution in a large blue butterfly. Science 319:88–90. Crossref, Medline
Nicholson J. K., Holmes E., Kinross J., Burcelin R., Gibson G., Jia W., Pettersson S. 2012. Host-gut microbiota metabolic interactions. Science 336:1262–1267. Crossref
Niess J. H., Leithäuser F., Adler G., Reimann J. 2008. Commensal gut flora drives the expansion of proinflammatory CD4 T cells in the colonic lamina propria under normal and inflammatory conditions. Journal of Immunology 180:559–568. Crossref
Nyhart L. K., Lidgard S. 2011. Individuals at the center of biology: Rudolf Leuckart'sPolymorphismus der Individuen and the ongoing narrative of parts and wholes. With an annotated translation. Journal of the History of Biology 44:373–443. Crossref
Obata T. et al. 2010. Indigenous opportunistic bacteria inhabit mammalian gut-associated lymphoid tissues and share a mucosal antibody-mediated symbiosis. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 107:7419–7424. Crossref
Okasha S. 2003. Recent work on the levels of selection problem. Human Nature Review3:349–356.
Okasha S. 2006. Evolution and the Levels of Selection. Oxford (United Kingdom): Oxford University Press.
Oliver K. R., Greene W. K. 2009. Transposable elements: powerful facilitators of evolution.Bioessays 31:703–714. Crossref
Olivier H. M., Moon B. R. 2010. The effects of atrazine on spotted salamander embryos and their symbiotic alga. Ecotoxicology 19:654–661. Crossref
Oliver K. M., Degnan P. H., Hunter M. S., Moran N. A. 2009. Bacteriophages encode factors required for protection in a symbiotic mutualism. Science 325:992–994. Crossref, Medline
Pannebakker B. A., Loppin B., Elemans C. P. H., Humblot L., Vavre F. 2007. Parasitic inhibition of cell death facilitates symbiosis. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 104:213–215. Crossref
Peterson D. A., McNulty N. P., Guruge J. L., Gordon J. I. 2007. IgA response to symbiotic bacteria as a mediator of gut homeostasis. Cell Host and Microbe 2:328–339. Crossref
Pradeu T. 2010. What is an organism? An immunological answer. History and Philosophy of the Life Sciences 32:247–268.
Pradeu T. 2011. A mixed self: the role of symbiosis in development. Biological Theory 6:80–88. Crossref
Qin J. et al. 2010. A human gut microbial gene catalogue established by metagenomic sequencing. Nature 464:59–65. Crossref, Medline
Rawls J. F., Samuel B. S., Gordon J. I. 2004. Gnotobiotic zebrafish reveal evolutionarily conserved responses to the gut microbiota. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 101:4596–4601. Crossref
Rawls J. F., Mahowald M. A., Ley R. E., Gordon J. I. 2006. Reciprocal gut microbiota transplants from zebrafish and mice to germ-free recipients reveal host habitat selection.Cell 127:423–433. Crossref, Medline
Rhee K.-J., Sethupathi P., Driks A., Lanning D. K., Knight K. L. 2004. Roles of commensal bacteria in development of gut-associated lymphoid tissues and preimmune antibody repertoire. Journal of Immunology 172:1118–1124. Crossref
Rosenberg E., Koren O., Reshef L., Efrony R., Zilber-Rosenberg I. 2007. The role of microorganisms in coral health, disease and evolution. Nature Reviews Microbiology5:355–362. Crossref, Medline
Round J. L., O'Connell R. M., Mazmanian S. K. 2010. Coordination of tolerogenic immune responses by the commensal microbiota. Journal of Autoimmunity 34:J220–J225.
Round J. L., Lee S. M., Li J., Tran G., Jabri B., Chatila T. A., Mazmanian S. K. 2011. The Toll-like receptor 2 pathway establishes colonization by a commensal of the human microbiota. Science 332:974–977. Crossref
Sapp J. 1994. Evolution By Association: A History of Symbiosis. New York: Oxford University Press.
Sapp J. 2002. Paul Buchner (1886–1978) and hereditary symbiosis in insects. International Microbiology 5:145–150. Crossref
Sapp J. 2005. Microbial Phylogeny and Evolution: Concepts and Controversies. New York: Oxford University Press.
Sapp J. 2009. The New Foundations of Evolution: On the Tree of Life. New York: Oxford University Press.
Sasaki T., Nishihara H., Hirakawa M., Fujimura K., Tanaka M., Kokubo M., Kimura-Yoshida C., Matsuo I., Sumiyama K., Saitou N., Shimogori T., Okada N. 2008. Possible involvement of SINEs in mammalian-specific brain formation. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 105:4220–4225. Crossref
Sharon G., Segal D., Ringo J. M., Hefetz A., Zilber-Rosenberg I., Rosenberg E. 2010. Commensal bacteria play a role in mating preference of Drosophila melanogaster. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America107:20051–20056. Crossref
Smith H. F., Fisher R. E., Everett M. L., Thomas A. D., Bollinger R. R., Parker W. 2009. Comparative anatomy and phylogenetic distribution of the mammalian cecal appendix.Journal of Evolutionary Biology 22:1984–1999. Crossref
Stappenbeck T. S., Hooper L. V., Gordon J. I. 2002. Developmental regulation of intestinal angiogenesis by indigenous microbes via Paneth cells. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 99:15451–15455. Crossref
Stearns S. C. 2007. Are we stalled part way through a major evolutionary transition from individual to group? Evolution 61:2275–2280. Crossref
Tauber A. I. 1994. The Immune Self: Theory or Metaphor? Cambridge (United Kingdom): Cambridge University Press.
Tauber A. I. 2008a. Expanding immunology: defense versus ecological perspectives.Perspectives in Biology and Medicine 51:270–284. Crossref
Tauber A. I. 2009. The biological notion of self and non-self. In Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, edited by E. N. Zelta. http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/biologyself/.
Taylor C. 1989. Sources of the Self: The Making of the Modern Identity. Cambridge (Massachusetts): Harvard University Press.
Taylor M. W., Radax R., Steger D., Wagner M. 2007. Sponge-associated microorganisms: evolution, ecology, and biotechnological potential. Microbiology and Molecular Biology Review 71:295–347. Crossref
Teixeira L., Ferreira Á., Ashburner M. 2008. The bacterial symbiont Wolbachia induces resistance to RNA viral infections in Drosophila melanogaster. PLoS Biology 6:e1000002.
Thomas J. A. 1995. The Ecology and Conservation of Maculinea arion and Other European Species of Large Blue Butterfly. Pages 180–197 in Ecology and Conservation of Butterflies, edited by A. S. Pullin. New York: Chapman and Hall.
Thomas L. 1974. The Lives of a Cell: Notes of a Biology Watcher. New York: Viking Press.
Tsuchida T., Koga R., Horikawa M., Tsunoda T., Maoka T., Matsumoto S., Simon J.-C., Fukatsu T. 2010. Symbiotic bacterium modifies aphid body color. Science 330:1102–1104.Crossref
Turnbaugh P. J., Gordon J. I. 2009. The core gut microbiome, energy balance and obesity.Journal of Physiology 587:4153–4158. Crossref
Turnbaugh P. J, Ley R. E., Mahowald M. A., Magrini V., Mardis E. R., Gordon J. I. 2006. An obesity-associated gut microbiome with increased capacity for energy harvest. Nature444:1027–1031. Crossref
Turnbaugh P. J., Ley R. E., Hamady M., Fraser-Liggett C. M., Knight R., Gordon J. I. 2007. The human microbiome project. Nature 449:804–810. Crossref
Ulvestad E. 2007. Defending Life: The Nature of Host-Parasite Relations. Dordrecht (The Netherlands): Springer.
Vásquez A., Forsgren E., Fries I., Paxton R. J., Flaberg E., Szekely L., Olofsson T. C. 2012. Symbionts as major modulators of insect health: lactic acid bacteria and honeybees. PLoS One 7:e33188.
Vogel K. J., Moran N. A. 2011. Sources of variation in dietary requirements in an obligate nutritional symbiosis. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 278:115–121. Crossref
Weismann A. 1893. The all-sufficiency of natural selection: a reply to Herbert Spencer.Contemporary Review 64:309–338, 596–610.
Weiss B. L., Maltz M., Aksoy S. 2012. Obligate symbionts activate immune system development in the tsetse fly. Journal of Immunology 188:3395–3403. Crossref, Medline
Welsch J. A., Ram S. 2008. Factor H and Neisserial pathogenesis. Vaccine 26:I40–I45.
Werren J. H. 2005. Heritable Microorganisms and Reproductive Parasitism. Pages 290–315 in Microbial Evolution: Concepts and Controversies, edited by J. Sapp. Oxford (United Kingdom): Oxford University Press.
Williams G. C. 1966. Adaptation and Natural Selection: A Critique of Some Current Evolutionary Thought. Princeton (New Jersey): Princeton University Press.
Zilber-Rosenberg I., Rosenberg E. 2008. Role of microorganisms in the evolution of animals and plants: the hologenome theory of evolution. FEMS Microbiology Reviews 32:723–735.Crossref
Zivkovic A. M., German J. B., Lebrilla C. B., Mills D. A. 2011. Human milk glycobiome and its impact on the infant gastrointestinal microbiota. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 108:4653–4658. Crossref
No comments:
Post a Comment